Educating An Independent Nation
1.0 Introduction
Many leaders in immediate post-independent Africa (i.e., 1960s - 1970s) recognized the important role of education for national and economic development and for building a national identity. In Ghana, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah saw education as a tool for “producing a scientifically literate population, for tackling mainly the environmental causes of low productivity, and for producing knowledge to harness Ghana’s economic potential” (Akyeampong, 2010). National policy documents in several African countries also prioritized education, particularly higher education, as a tool for economic development and to lift African countries out of poverty (Woldegiorgis & Doevenspeck, 2013). The need for a national identity was an essential aspect of national development, especially for African nations, as many are both culturally and linguistically heterogeneous. In fact, Zolberg (1967) believed that creating a national identity was more important than even economic development (as cited in Bandyopadhyay & Green, 2013). And education is central to developing this shared national identity among citizens of heterogeneous states (Bereketeab, 2020, p. 73).
At Lead For Ghana, we also recognize the role of education in economic development and in creating a shared national identity. Our work is guided by our strong conviction that education is the most powerful solution to all societal problems, including issues of national development. In this month’s Insights from Lead For Ghana, we explore the role of education systems in Ghana during the colonial era and in post-independence times, and the effect of these on national development and nation-building.
2.0 Ghana’s Education System
2.1 Colonial and Post-Independence
Formal education in Ghana (formerly the Gold Coast) was introduced by European missionaries in the 18th and 19th centuries. Missionary schools, such as those established by the Basel, Wesleyan, and Catholic missions, focused on religious instruction, literacy, and basic arithmetic with limited emphasis on scientific, technical, or vocational training (McWilliam & Kwamena-Poh, 1975). The colonial government later formalized the education system, leading to the 1919 Education Ordinance, which sought to improve school supervision and expand educational access (Boahen, 1992). However, education remained elitist and urban-centered, limited secondary and technical education to a privileged few, with a strong emphasis on producing administrative personnel rather than fostering national development (Brock & Alexiadou, 2013).
With independence in 1957, the government of Kwame Nkrumah sought to transform education into a tool for national development, self-reliance, and industrialization. A socialist-oriented education policy aimed at creating an egalitarian society was introduced. The following are some of the key educational reforms that have been made since Ghana’s independence:
The 1961 Education Act: This act made education free and compulsory at the basic level, significantly expanding access to primary education (Ministry of Education, 1961). Among other provisions, the Education Act established the principal legislation on the right to be educated. The government also introduced new secondary and technical schools to promote industrial and technological advancement. Education was aligned with the country’s socialist agenda, fostering patriotism and self-sufficiency.
The 1987 Educational Reforms: Economic challenges in the 1970s and early 1980s led to reforms aimed at making education more practical and efficient. The 1987 reforms reduced the pre-university education cycle from 17 to 12 years, introduced Junior Secondary Schools (JSS) with an emphasis on technical and vocational training, and promoted cost-sharing in higher education.
The 2007 and 2018 Reforms: In 2007, the government introduced a new structure, replacing JSS with Junior High School (JHS) and Senior Secondary School (SSS) with Senior High School (SHS), extending SHS duration from three to four years (MOE, 2007). However, in 2009, the duration was reverted to three years following political changes. The 2018 Free SHS Policy was introduced to remove financial barriers to secondary education, helping to achieve equal opportunities for students.
Goals Of Post-Independence Educational Reforms In Ghana
Universal Access: Introduction of free and compulsory basic education to promote literacy and social mobility.
Emphasis on Technical and Vocational Training: Establishment of polytechnics and technical institutions to drive industrialization.
Decolonization of Curriculum: Inclusion of African history, literature, and indigenous knowledge systems to foster national identity.
Expansion of Higher Education: Founding of the University of Ghana (1948), Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (1952), and other institutions to enhance intellectual capacity (Boakye-Yiadom, 2017).
2.2 21st Century Education
In the 21st century, education systems worldwide are undergoing significant transformations to meet the demands of a rapidly changing world. The rise of globalization, advancements in technology, shifting job markets, and the need for critical thinking and problem-solving skills have compelled nations to rethink their educational frameworks. Many countries are moving away from traditional rote memorization and exam-driven learning toward competency-based education, digital literacy, and personalized learning approaches (Schleicher, 2018). The focus is now on equipping students with skills such as creativity, collaboration, and adaptability to prepare them for the complexities of modern economies and societies (World Economic Forum [WEF], 2020). Ghana, like many other nations, has recognized the need for reforms to align its education system with 21st-century demands. Key changes include:
Curriculum Reforms: Ghana introduced a new standards-based curriculum in 2019, emphasizing critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving (Ministry of Education, Ghana [MoE], 2019). This shift was intended to move away from rote learning and focus on competency-based education, ensuring students develop practical skills relevant to real-world applications.
STEM and TVET Promotion: Recognizing the importance of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) and Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in national development, Ghana has invested heavily in STEM schools, laboratories, and technical institutions (Anamuah-Mensah, 2020). These reforms aim to address the skills gap and prepare students for the evolving job market, particularly in science and technology-driven sectors (UNESCO, 2022).
Digitization of Education: Ghana has incorporated digital tools into teaching and learning, especially following the disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. E-learning platforms, digital literacy programs, and ICT integration in schools have become priorities to ensure students are equipped for the digital economy (Aryeetey et al., 2021).
Teacher Professional Development: The government has prioritized continuous teacher training to align pedagogical methods with modern educational demands. Initiatives such as the National Teacher Standards (NTS) ensure that educators are well-prepared to implement the new curriculum and foster a student-centered learning environment (MoE, 2020).
Access and Inclusion: Policies such as Free Senior High School (SHS) were introduced to improve access to education, ensuring that financial barriers do not prevent students from acquiring knowledge (Akyeampong et al., 2018). Additionally, efforts are being made to promote inclusive education, particularly for children with disabilities (UNICEF Ghana, 2021).
Ghana’s education reforms reflect broader global shifts in education. Countries worldwide are focusing on competency-based learning, digital education, and lifelong learning to prepare students for future challenges (Schleicher, 2018). The emphasis on STEM and vocational education in Ghana aligns with global trends aimed at bridging skills gaps in labor markets and fostering economic competitiveness (World Bank, 2021). Similarly, the move toward digital education mirrors efforts in developed and emerging economies to integrate technology into teaching and learning (OECD, 2022). Ghana’s focus on access and inclusivity aligns with global initiatives such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), which advocates for equitable quality education and lifelong learning opportunities for all (UNESCO, 2020). By implementing these reforms, Ghana is positioning itself to meet international educational benchmarks while addressing local challenges.
As education continues to evolve in the 21st century, Ghana’s reforms demonstrate a commitment to equipping students with the necessary skills and knowledge to thrive in a dynamic global landscape. These changes ensure that education remains relevant, inclusive, and responsive to the demands of the modern world.
3.0 Impact on National Development and Nation-Building
3.1 Economic Growth: Education and Human Capital Development
Education reforms in Ghana have played a critical role in facilitating human capital development, which has directly contributed to industrialization and economic modernization. The introduction of universal basic education, particularly through policies such as the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) policy in 1995, ensured that more children had access to foundational literacy and numeracy skills (Ministry of Education, Ghana [MoE], 2015). This created a larger pool of educated individuals who could participate in higher levels of education and skill acquisition.
As Ghana transitioned into the 21st century, the government placed a strong emphasis on Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education and Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) to equip students with practical skills relevant to the modern job market (World Bank, 2021). The establishment of technical universities and the promotion of TVET institutions have helped produce skilled professionals in Ghana in fields such as engineering, construction, and agriculture, reducing dependence on foreign expertise and fostering local industrialization (UNESCO, 2022). The government’s investment in STEM-focused secondary schools, such as the Accra High STEM School and Bosomtwe Girls' STEM High School, aims to build a workforce capable of driving technological advancement and industrial development (MoE, 2020).
Additionally, higher education reforms, including the expansion of public universities like the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), University of Ghana, and the University of Energy and Natural Resources (UENR), have supported research, innovation, and entrepreneurship (Anamuah-Mensah, 2020). Many graduates from these institutions have gone on to establish businesses, work in industries, or contribute to policy-making, further strengthening Ghana’s economy. The conversion of polytechnic technical schools into universities also strengthens higher education and supports national development. This transition broadens academic programs, equipping students with both theoretical and practical skills to meet industry demands (World Bank, 2021). By offering bachelor's degrees, these institutions attract more students and promote research, innovation, and entrepreneurship (African Development Bank, 2020). Graduates gain advanced competencies, improving their employability (Ghana Ministry of Education, 2022). Additionally, the technical universities drive industrial growth by bridging academia and industry (OECD, 2019). This shift fosters economic progress, enhances access to education, and builds a knowledge-based economy for global competitiveness (UNESCO, 2023).
By increasing literacy rates, improving access to education, and promoting vocational training, Ghana’s education system holds promising potential for nurturing a workforce capable of adapting to economic shifts, increasing productivity, and driving national development (Glewwe & Kremer, 2006).
3.2 National Cohesion: Fostering a Shared Identity
Education has also played a vital role in promoting national unity and social cohesion. One of the significant post-independence reforms was the decolonization of the curriculum, which integrated African history, literature, and indigenous knowledge systems into formal education (Akyeampong, 2006). Previously, colonial-era education placed emphasis on European history and values, sidelining Ghana’s cultural heritage. By revising the curriculum to include Ghanaian history, traditional governance systems, local languages, and African literature, education has helped instill a strong sense of national identity and pride among students (MoE, 2019).
For instance, students in basic and secondary schools now study Ghanaian history, including the roles of key figures like Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, Yaa Asantewaa, and Kofi Annan, reinforcing national consciousness (Boakye-Yiadom, 2017). The inclusion of Ghanaian languages as part of the core curriculum ensures that local traditions and cultural expressions are preserved and appreciated by younger generations (UNESCO, 2020).
Furthermore, the boarding school system in secondary education has contributed to national cohesion by bringing together students from different ethnic, religious, and social backgrounds. Institutions like Achimota School, Mfantsipim School, and Wesley Girls’ High School have historically been melting pots of diverse cultures, fostering cross-cultural understanding and national unity (Addae-Mensah, 2000). These interactions have helped bridge ethnic and regional divides, promoting peaceful coexistence and a shared sense of belonging.
3.3 Political Consciousness: Education and Civic Participation
Education reforms have also led to greater political awareness and increased participation in governance. As literacy rates have improved, more citizens have been empowered with the knowledge and critical thinking skills necessary to engage in political discourse, understand governance structures, and make informed decisions (Akyeampong, 2006).
The introduction of civic education in schools has ensured that students learn about their rights, responsibilities, and the importance of democracy (UNICEF Ghana, 2021). The National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE) actively engages schools and communities, reinforcing knowledge about Ghana’s constitutional rights, election processes, and the role of government institutions (NCCE, 2022). This has contributed to high voter turnout rates in elections, as educated citizens are more likely to participate in democratic processes.
For example, Ghana’s 2016 and 2020 general elections saw significant youth participation, partly due to increased access to education and political awareness programs (MoE, 2022). Many university students and young professionals have also taken active roles in national debates, governance, and policy-making, advocating for transparency, accountability, and development-oriented policies (World Bank, 2021).
Education has also empowered marginalized groups, particularly women and rural populations, to engage meaningfully in leadership and governance. However, the progress made in this regard is slow as gender representation in leadership remains disproportionately low. For example, although women make up 50.7% of Ghana’s population (GSS, 2022), approximately, only 14.5% of the Members of Parliament in the 9th Parliament are women (Parliament of Ghana, 2025). This gap highlights the urgent need to expand educational and leadership opportunities for women and girls, as well as other historically marginalised groups, ensuring that their presence and voices are equally represented at all levels of governance.
4.0 Challenges Facing Ghana’s Education System
While Ghana has made significant strides in expanding access to education, numerous challenges persist that hinder equitable and quality learning outcomes across the country.
4.1 Regional and Socioeconomic Inequality
Disparities in educational outcomes remain stark between urban and rural areas. Rural and underserved communities often lack adequate infrastructure, qualified teachers, and access to learning materials, making it difficult for children in these areas to receive the same quality of education as their urban counterparts. According to the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS, 2022), literacy rates in rural areas lag significantly behind those in urban centers, contributing to a widening gap in educational attainment. Ghana’s national literacy rate, for instance, stands at 69.8%, the second highest in Africa, according to UNESCO (2021). However, literacy levels vary significantly across the country, with some regions reporting averages as low as 47%, revealing a stark contrast between national performance and regional realities. This indicates that a significant portion of Ghanaians—especially in less developed regions—remain illiterate. Such disparities hinder inclusive development, limit access to economic and educational opportunities, and widen inequality. Without targeted interventions, Ghana risks leaving behind large segments of its population in the journey toward national progress (GCB, Education Sector report, 2023)
4.2 Teacher Shortages and Capacity Gaps
Although Ghana continues to train and recruit teachers, many schools—especially in remote communities—face persistent teacher shortages. The primary level continues to depict a relatively low percentage of trained teachers. Over 69% of teachers in early childhood education are not certified, which undermines the quality of instruction and student learning outcomes (GCB, Education Sector report, 2023). The deployment of teachers is also uneven, with a concentration in urban areas, leaving many rural schools understaffed.
4.3 Learning Poverty
Learning poverty—the inability of children to read and understand a simple text by age 10—remains a critical issue in Ghana’s education sector. A 2022 report by the World Bank and UNESCO revealed that nearly 70% of 10-year-olds in low- and middle-income countries, including Ghana, cannot read and understand a simple text. In Ghana’s rural areas, about 61% of children aged 7 to 14 lack basic reading and numeracy skills. This learning crisis widens the gap between urban and rural learners and threatens the country’s human capital development. This points to a learning crisis that goes beyond access and focuses on the quality of foundational education (GCB, Education Sector report, 2023)
4.4 Infrastructure Deficits
A lack of basic school infrastructure continues to impede effective learning. Thousands of schools across Ghana operate under trees, in dilapidated buildings, or without essential facilities such as toilets, potable water, and electricity. This not only affects school attendance but also the dignity and safety of learners, particularly girls. According to UNICEF Ghana (2021), over 5,000 schools across the country lack adequate infrastructure and require urgent intervention, a situation acknowledged by the Ghana Education Service in joint assessments.
4.5 Education Financing Constraints
While the government has increased its investment in education through initiatives such as the Free SHS policy, financing remains a challenge. UNESCO recommends that countries allocate 15% to 20% of total government expenditure and 4% to 6% of GDP to education. However, Ghana has consistently fallen short of these benchmarks. Even though some progress was made in 2019 when education received 17.9% of total government expenditure—close to the global target—this figure declined sharply to just 10.9% in 2023. Similarly, education spending as a share of GDP dropped from 4.3% in 2020 to 3.1% in 2023, below the minimum recommended threshold. These persistent financing gaps limit Ghana’s ability to improve infrastructure, enhance teacher quality, and provide adequate teaching and learning resources (UNICEF Ghana, 2021).
4.6 Mismatch Between Graduate Output and National Development Needs in the 21st Century
According to the 2023 Ghana Education Sector Report, although the Ghanaian university education system produces around 109,874 graduates annually, engineering graduates make up only 7% of this total, while science and mathematics graduates account for just 5%. The low number of graduates in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields reflects a broader issue of mismatch between graduate output and Ghana’s development needs, especially in the 21st century, where science and research skills are in high demand. This shortage limits the availability of STEM-skilled professionals, making it difficult for businesses to find qualified local candidates and hindering national efforts toward innovation, industrialization, and economic development. Graduates also lack the soft skills required by employers. Overall, as the International Labour Organization (ILO) and Ghana’s Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations have indicated, there is a pressing need to strengthen the link between education and employability (World Bank, 2021).
5.0 Future of Ghana’s Education - The Lead For Ghana’s Vision
At Lead For Ghana, we envision a future where all children in Ghana will have access to an excellent education. This vision is based on our strong conviction that education is the most powerful solution to all societal problems and the medium to provide equal opportunities. Our programming activities to achieve this vision revolve around tackling educational inequity and addressing leadership gaps within the country. At the core of the programming for youth leadership development is the Leadership Development Fellowship program. To tackle educational inequity, we identify, train, and place talented recent university graduates and young professionals, called fellows, in underserved schools nationwide. Throughout the fellowship, fellows are also equipped with the necessary skills, knowledge, and mindset to become ethical, effective, and transformative leaders who can drive meaningful change in Ghana’s education sector and in other sectors across the country.
Operating across all 16 regions of Ghana, LFG currently has 330 active fellows placed in 113 schools in 82 districts. The organization has impacted over 133,000 students throughout its lifetime. LFG’s model of placing exceptional young graduates in underserved schools has led to impressive outcomes, including a 100% BECE pass rate in some schools and a 97% annual improvement rate. Additionally, infrastructure projects have been completed in over 100 partner schools, enhancing the learning environment and supporting long-term educational development. Through this comprehensive model, Lead For Ghana is helping to build a more equitable education system and empowering communities across the country.
These activities alone are however not enough to realize our vision. And as we urge policymakers, educators and educational leaders, Lead For Ghana partners to continue to support Lead For Ghana as we strive to improve Ghana’s education system to realize our vision of ensuring that all children in Ghana, irrespective of their geographical location and place of birth have access to an excellent education.
6.0 References
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